A large State Atomic Energy Corporation “Rosatom” delegation had accompanied Russian President Putin on his past summit meeting to New Delhi on 4-5 December. Rosatom Director General Alexey Likhachev met with India’s Atomic Energy Chairman Ajit Kumar Mohanty. The team focused heavily on expanding nuclear energy cooperation. In addition to the delivery of fuel for Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KNPP) Unit 3, discussions were held on Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and floating plants, and exploring localising production. The Rosatom group visited HMT Bengaluru for additive manufacturing collaboration, signalling deeper ties in both atomic energy and advanced tech.
KNPP Unit 3 requires initial loading towards “first criticality,” boosting India’s nuclear goals. Discussions assessed progress on Units 3, 4, 5, and 6, with Rosatom providing advanced fuel for longer cycles. Talks included building more large-scale reactors (VVER-1200) and developing SMRs. Rosatom emphasised increasing local production of equipment in India, aligning with the “Make in India” initiatives. The potential joint development and localization of Russian-designed SMRs in India was very important to scale India’s clean-energy capacity. Russia proposed its SMR technology, which it views as an ideal solution for India’s diverse and remote energy needs.
Russia is promoting its RITM-200N SMR design (55 MWe capacity), which is adapted from the reactors used in its nuclear-powered icebreakers. Russia also offered to build floating nuclear power plants.India has an ambitious target to increase its nuclear energy capacity to 100 GW by 2047, a goal that relies on both large-capacity reactors and the faster deployment of SMRs. India has previously been in talks with the US and France regarding SMR technology cooperation. It is important to understand the SMR operational potential.
Small Nuclear Power Reactors
The International Atomic Agency defines “small” as a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit, which is about one-third of the generating capacity of traditional nuclear power reactors. “Modular” makes it possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a location for installation. “Reactors” harness nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.700 MWe are termed as “medium”. Small portable nuclear power reactors are required both military and civilian for use in remote locations. There are also very small units which are about 15 MWe, especially for remote communities.While small reactors require special technologies, they are less cost-intensive, especially for transmission. Initial experience came from nuclear-powered submarines. Greater demand of SMRs would also mean economies of scale.
Four types of small reactors that are evolving include light water reactors, fast neutron reactors, graphite-moderated high temperature reactors and a few types of molten salt reactors. In the end what matters is the smaller size, low technology risk, inherent safety, and longer unrefuelled operations. Smaller reactors also require much lesser real estate. Another advantage of small reactors is the much smaller safety zone radius around them. They use low-enriched uranium (LEU), and require less cooling water. They also produce lower radioactivity. Lower investment and siting costs make them more attractive even for captive corporate use.
Decommissioning of such plants is much simpler. Yes, certification and licensing have issues. These reactors will also be well suited for very small countries or island nations. Arctic regions are also contenders for SMR.
SMRs can be fabricated at a plant and then moved to the installation site. This saves time and on-site activity. Also, the overall cost is much lower because of standardisation and production scale. Modularity and commonality in design also hasten licensing. Additional modules can be added if power requirements need to be scaled up. The reverse could be true in case of scale-down of demand. A smaller reactor also reduces safety concerns, and containment in case of accident is easier.
SMRs also have a greater variety of cooling options. In the case of SMR, the thermal energy can be used directly, without conversion, like heating water, etc. Most SMRs can run without much supervision. Many SMRs have higher fuel burn-up, reducing the quantity of waste. The initial setting-up cost of the SMR manufacturing plants is fairly high, and therefore, to reduce the amortised cost, there may be a need to produce around 50 or more SMRs.
Nuclear proliferation risk remains a concern for SMRs. Significantly reduced staffing reduces physical protection and therefore increases security concerns.
Countries Working on SMR
In the USA, Westinghouse, Babcock & Wilcox, Holtec, and NuScale Power are some of the major players. China has some of the most advanced SMRs. China is also developing small district-level heating reactors of 100 to 200 MWt capacities to replace coal-based heating plants in northern parts. India’s 220 MWe pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs) are also SMRs. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) is offering both 220 and 540 MWe versions internationally. The Chinese 300-325 MWe PWR at Chashma in Pakistan (called CNP-300) is an SMR. The UK, Canada, Russia, Japan, South Korea, Denmark, and South Africa are also other players.
Early Small Nuclear Reactors for Submarines
The design, development and production of nuclear marine propulsion plants started in the United States in the 1940s. The United States and Soviet Union have had nuclear-powered submarines since the early 1950s. The nuclear submarine is powered by a small nuclear reactor. The nuclear propulsion being independent of air, frees the nuclear submarines from having to surface frequently, as required by the diesel-electric-powered submarines. The much more efficient power generation allows higher speeds. The submarine may not be refuelled for its entire operational life of typically around 25 years. Interestingly, even with the most advanced electric batteries, a modern conventional diesel submarine may remain submerged for a few days at slow speed, and only a few hours at top speed. Marine-type reactors differ from land-based commercial electric power reactors in several respects.
Nuclear-Powered Ships and Vessels
Only the United States and France built nuclear aircraft carriers. The Soviet Union had heavy nuclear-powered guided missile cruisers. The United States Navy (USN) also built similar cruisers, but all were retired before the year 2000. Russia has nuclear-powered and nuclear-armed unmanned underwater vehicles. In the 1960s, the USA built a few experimental nuclear-powered civil merchant ships, but did not pursue them as they were too small and uneconomical to operate. The 1988-built Russian vessel “Sevmorput” is one of only four nuclear-powered merchant ships ever built. After refurbishment in 2016, it is currently the only one in service in the world and operating in the Arctic’s Northern Sea Route (NSR).It serves as a container and LASH (lighter aboard ship) carrier, delivering cargo like equipment and supplies to remote Russian Arctic regions and the Far East. Soviet Union and now Russia have been using nuclear-powered icebreaker ships since the late 1950s. A few are still in service, and more are being built.
The high cost of nuclear technology and maintenance means that very few military powers can afford nuclear submarines or ships. The only six countries with nuclear submarines are the USA, Russia, China, UK, France and India. In 2020, the Pentagon issued contracts for mobile, small nuclear reactors that will provide nuclear power for American forces at home and abroad.
Mini Nuclear Plants for Military
For long, the U.S. Army has been using mobile and static small reactors to power remote air/missile defence radar stations in Alaska, Greenland, and Antarctica, and for providing electricity and heating. Mini Nuclear Power Plants (MNPP) would be portable and operate unrefuelled for 10-20 years. Mobile SMRs would be ideal for rapid response scenarios. These would also be handy during humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) operations. The smaller ones could generate below 10 MWe for at least three years without refuelling, and weigh less than 40 tons and have volume small enough to move on a truck, ship, or C-17 aircraft.
US DoD’s “Project Pele” was on track for full power outdoor testing of a prototype mobile reactor,and electricity production at Idaho National Lab (INL) for testing. The aim was for field deliveries by 2028.The project was listed as also relevant to lunar and Mars surface operations.
During the Soviet Union, Pamir-630D truck-mounted small air-cooled 0.6 MWe nuclear reactors were built. These were discontinued later. Russia now has small transportable 2.5 MWe nuclear reactors. Russia is also developing small mobile nuclear power plants for the military in the Arctic, air-transportable by IL-76 aircraft and Mi-26 helicopters.
Super small radioisotope thermoelectric generators were considered the answer. NASA reportedly uses some of these to power satellites and other spacecraft. In 2020 the Pentagon awarded three contracts for mobile small nuclear reactors. In the 2-10 MWe range, small reactors were to be available by 2024. They could be deployable by 2027. Security during move of the reactor would have to be very high.
Civil Applications for SMRs
SMRs are very suitable for remote areas, off-grid industrial sites, or supplementing existing grids, unlike large conventional reactors. They are becoming much safer. Many designs use natural forces (like gravity) for shutdown and cooling, reducing reliance on external power. They are scalable and can be added incrementally as energy demand grows. They are versatile and provide electricity, process heat for industry (steel, hydrogen), and potentially desalinate water. They will be good for remote communities and will power isolated towns and islands. They support industrial decarbonisation by supplying low-carbon energy to energy-intensive industries (mining, steel, chemicals). They give grid support by balancing variable renewable energy sources. They can power desalination plants.
Over 80 designs are under development globally, with some already operational or nearing operation. Countries like India are heavily investing, planning significant deployments by the 2030s to meet clean energy goals. While promising, challenges include financing large-scale manufacturing and navigating evolving regulatory frameworks.
Nuclear Propulsion for Satellites
Nuclear power is being used in space for electricity and heat generation in extreme cold temperatures. Radioisotope thermoelectric generators have been used in long distance space probes and on crewed lunar missions. Both the USA and USSR sent many nuclear-electric satellites into space. The more powerful TOPAZ-II reactor could produce 10 kilowatts of electricity. Nuclear power for space propulsion systems using ion thrusters, greatly reduces the satellite size and options for alternative payload. Also propulsion is required to regain the drifted satellite’s position or to avoid collisions. New systems are under development. Russia and China’s Ambitious Reactor on the Moon
In 2024 Russia and China announced teaming up to set up a nuclear power station on the lunar surface. The primary motivation behind this project was to provide a reliable power source for future lunar bases. The plan led by Rosatom was to position an SMR on the Moon capable of generating up to half a megawatt of energy, sufficient for most scientific apparatus being operated on the Moon and also for a small human accommodation. It would be used for many activities and have many years of life and operate even when there is no solar energy on the dark side of the moon for nearly half the month.
China had plans to launch three Chang’e space missions to test mandatory technologies that would be required for setting up a robotic base for remote experiments. The first mission was planned for 2026, with project completion expected by 2028. It could then be a precursor for setting up a human habitation a few decades down the line. Currently Russia is targeting to deploy the reactor on the moon by 2036. A nuclear reactor would be the first step for a space base. Russia has invited India to be part of this program. India had planned its own Moon base by 2025.
US Space Base Plan
USA had an independent program for a space base. In 2028, NASA planned on launching the Lunar Surface Asset, a small habitat on the surface of the Moon on either an SLS Block 1B or through an Artemis Support Mission on a commercial launcher. This would be the first crewed lunar base. The Artemis program crewed spaceflight program was to be carried out predominantly by NASA, U.S. commercial spaceflight companies, and international partners such as the European Space Agency (ESA), Japan’s JAXA, and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) to land “the first woman and the next man” on the Moon, specifically at the lunar south pole region by 2026.
NASA sees Artemis as the next step towards the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon, laying the foundation for private companies to build a lunar economy, and eventually sending humans to Mars.
The US-led Artemis program had scheduled several crewed landings, starting with Artemis 3 tentatively planned for 2026, and thereafter setting up five temporary base camps with the Human Landing Systems (HLS) until Artemis 8 was planned to set up the fixed Foundational Surface Habitat (FSH) of the Artemis Base Camp in the 2030s. India is the 27th country to sign the Artemis Accords.
Way Ahead India
Clearly, while the environmental concerns are driving the switch from fossil fuel power generation to much cleaner alternative energy for electric power generation for civil use, the military and space need much smaller, lighter, and long-lasting power sources for better mobility and at remote locations, including for planetary habitats. India has a well-established nuclear energy program. India has the third largest armed forces and very active borders spanning some of the highest mountains and remote jungles. Like the other major powers, Indian armed forces require small nuclear power plants for use on the move. India’s nuclear submarine program is still evolving, and India has still to begin developing a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. Whether India will be part of the American Artemis, or also the Russo-Chinese joint space habitat project will evolve.
India’s future with SMRs looks promising, driven by a major government push (₹20,000 Cr budget allocation for 2025-26) to develop indigenous designs, aiming for 5 operational SMRs by 2033 to meet clean energy goals and industrial needs. SMRs offer flexibility for remote grids and heavy industry, potentially replacing coal and boosting energy independence, though success hinges on regulatory frameworks, private investment, and scaling production.
The Nuclear Energy Mission (2025-26 Budget) had a significant funding for SMR R&D.Focus is on indigenous designs (like BARC‘s Bharat SMRs) for 200MW & 55MW units, targeting commercial deployment. India could join up with Russia or others for technology support. SMRs provide reliable, low-carbon power, crucial for India’s 100GW nuclear target by 2047 and net-zero commitments.
Opening the nuclear sector to private players and start-ups, alongside potential reforms to the Atomic Energy Act, to accelerate innovation is on the cards. They will provide process heat for energy-intensive industries. SMRs will deliver strategic advantages in the form of “dispatchable power”.
India must put in place clear regulatory frameworks and licensing for SMRs. Larger numbers will support achieving cost competitiveness against large reactors and coal. Building a robust indigenous supply chain and manufacturing capabilities is important. Addressing safety concerns and building public trust and acceptability will be required.
India is strategically pivoting towards SMRs as a key pillar for a diversified, resilient, and decarbonized energy future, leveraging strong government backing, growing industrial demand, and evolving policy to overcome traditional nuclear project hurdles.The technological potential is huge and promising, and it is time for India to get going.
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